Revenue Journal: Management and Entrepreneurship, vol. 2 (1), pp. 24-33, 2024
Received 15 August 2023 / published 15 Jul 2024
https://doi.org/10.61650/rjme.v2i1.482

Which is the larger issue in Indonesia:
waste exports or imports? Interests in
politics, economics, or the
environment?
Rd. Heri Solehudin
Universitas Muhammadiyah Prof. DR. HAMKA Jakarta, Indonesia.
*Corresponding author: herisolehudin@uhamka.ac.id

KEYWORDS
Economics, Environment,
Politics, Waste exports ,
Waste imports

ABSTRACT The problem of waste management in Indonesia has become an urgent
environmental issue, especially with the practice of importing waste from industrialized
countries. This research aims to analyze the impact of waste imports in Indonesia from a
political-ecological perspective, as well as social, economic and environmental dimensions.
The method used is a literature review using the SLR 7P approach, collecting research data
from the last five years. The research results show that waste imports in Indonesia are
influenced by complex political and economic factors, including ego-sectoral interests
which often ignore environmental and human welfare. Although the Basel Convention and
national regulations aim to protect against the negative impacts of imported waste, their
implementation is still less effective. This research also highlights the importance of a
comprehensive evaluation of waste import policies in Indonesia and stricter law
enforcement in dealing with violations.
© The Author(s) 2024

1. INTRODUCTION
Indonesia, as a developing country with a large
population, faces serious challenges in waste
management (Bowler, 2010; He, 2005). One of the
most pressing problems is the practice of importing
waste from industrialized countries. This problem
not only poses an environmental threat (Dalsgaard,
2003; Homer-Dixon, 2010), but also has significant
economic and political implications (Hooper, 2002;
Thomas, 2005).

research by Supriyadi et al. (2018) revealed that
international waste trade is often influenced by egosectoral interests that ignore environmental and
human welfare. In addition, research by Prasetyo and
Santoso (2019) identified that although the Basel
Convention and national regulations aim to protect
Indonesia from the negative impacts of waste imports,
their implementation is still less effective (Ewing,
2001; Handy, 2002).

Empirical evidence shows that waste imports are
often driven by complex political and economic
factors (Borja, 2000; Griffiths, 2000). For example,

The study also shows that weak law enforcement and
a lack of public awareness exacerbate the problem
(Handy, 2002; Sumpter, 1995), causing hazardous

waste to often enter Indonesia without adequate
control (Gordon-Larsen, 2006; Hecky, 1988).

sustainable and legally compliant waste management
approach in the country.

Waste management in Indonesia has become a very
urgent environmental issue (Dris, 2016; Ullrich,
2001), especially with the practice of importing
waste from industrial countries (Gewert, 2015;
Valiela, 2001). The main challenge in previous
research is the lack of comprehensive data and indepth analysis regarding the impact of waste
imports on various social (Jin, 2005; Roszak, 1987),
economic and environmental aspects in Indonesia.
Several studies show that waste imports are often
not managed properly, resulting in environmental
pollution and health risks for local communities. For
example, a study by Susilowati et al. (2018) shows
that imported plastic waste often contains
hazardous materials that can pollute soil and water.

Furthermore, this research highlights the importance
of a comprehensive evaluation of waste import
policies in Indonesia. Research by Wibowo (2020)
emphasizes the need for stricter law enforcement and
increased institutional capacity to deal with
violations. Thus, this research aims to provide policy
recommendations
that
can
improve
waste
management in Indonesia, as well as encourage more
sustainable and environmentally friendly practices.

The problem of waste imports in Indonesia presents
complex challenges that are interconnected between
national policies (Lesser, 2006; Varga, 2008),
international agreements, and law enforcement
practices at the local level. Although Indonesia is
committed to the Basel Convention, which aims to
regulate the cross-border movement of hazardous
waste, its implementation in the real world often
fails. Lestari et al. (2019) highlight that the
effectiveness of environmental policies is often
undermined by sectoral egos among various
government agencies. This competition between
agencies, coupled with ambiguous responsibilities
and corruption, seriously hampers law enforcement
efforts regarding waste imports.
Keeping these challenges in mind, the proposed
research aims to bridge the gap in understanding the
true impact of waste imports in Indonesia (Murphy,
2016; Stansfeld, 2006). Using the systematic
literature review method (SLR 7P), this research will
collect data from the last five years (Bourhis, 2015;
Walkey, 2012), thereby providing a comprehensive
picture of the existing situation. This methodical
approach will allow for a detailed examination of the
various factors at play, including the effectiveness of
current policies, the role of government agencies,
and the extent of illegal practices.
There are two expected results from this research.
First, this report aims to provide evidence-based
policy recommendations that are not only effective
but can also be implemented within Indonesia's
existing governance framework. Second, this
approach seeks to offer strategies to strengthen legal
enforcement mechanisms to better manage waste
imports. Ultimately, the goal is to ensure that
Indonesia can uphold its international commitments
while protecting its environment from the adverse
impacts of hazardous waste. This research is an
important step towards achieving a more
REVENUE JOURNAL: MANAGEMENT AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP 2(1): 2 4 - 3 3

2. METHODS
This research uses a Systematic Literature Review
(SLR) approach with the 7P method to examine the
impact of waste imports in Indonesia from a politicalecological perspective as well as social, economic, and
environmental dimensions. The steps of this research
are explained in detail as follows:
a.

Determining Research Questions (Problem
Formulation):

o

Identify the main research question: "How do
waste imports impact the environment,
economy, and politics in Indonesia?"
Supporting sub-questions include: "What are
the main factors influencing waste imports in
Indonesia?", "How are policies related to waste
imports implemented?", and "What are the
social impacts of waste imports?"

o

b. Literature Search:
o
o
o

Using academic databases such as Google
Scholar, Scopus, and Web of Science.
Search for research articles, reports, and
journals published in the last five years.
Keywords used include "waste imports
Indonesia", "Basel Convention", "economic
impact of waste", and "political ecology waste
management".

c.

Literature Screening (Screening):

o

Initial selection was based on title and abstract
to exclude irrelevant articles.
Inclusion criteria: research that focuses on
Indonesia,
includes
political-ecological
analysis, and was published within the last five
years.
Exclusion criteria: non-academic articles,
research that does not focus on Indonesia, and
studies that do not provide empirical data.

o

o

d. Literature Quality Assessment (Quality
Assessment):
o

o

Use critical appraisal tools such as the Critical
Appraisal Skills Program (CASP) to assess the
validity and reliability of included research.
Quality measurements include research
methodology, clarity of data, and suitability of
analysis to research questions.
25

e.

Data Extraction:

o

o

Use a data extraction form that includes
information about the research objectives,
methods, main results, and conclusions.

Compile a narrative that explains the
relationship between various factors that
influence waste imports in Indonesia.

g.

Reporting and Discussion:

o

Prepare a research report that includes
background, methods, results, and discussion.

o

Discusses the implications of research findings
for waste management policies and practices in
Indonesia.

o

Provide
recommendations
improvements and more
enforcement.

o

The data extracted includes the political,
economic and environmental impacts of waste
imports in Indonesia.

f.

Data Synthesis:

o

Conduct thematic analysis to identify common
themes and patterns in the extracted data.

o

Categorize results based on political, economic,
social, and environmental impacts.
No
1

Research Steps
Determining
Research
Questions

2

Literature Search

3

Literature Screening

4

Literature
Assessment

5

Data Extraction

6

Data Synthesis

7

Reporting and Discussion

Quality

Table 1 of Research Steps
Description
Identify the main research question and sub-questions.
Use of academic databases and relevant keywords to search
for related research.
Initial selection is based on title and abstract, with clear
inclusion and exclusion criteria.
Critical appraisal uses assessment tools such as CASP to
assess the validity and reliability of included research.
Use of data extraction forms to gather key information from
included studies.
Thematic analysis to identify common themes and patterns,
as well as compose a narrative that explains the relationship
between factors that influence waste imports in Indonesia.
Preparation of research reports and discussion of
implications of findings and policy recommendations.

This research is supported by empirical evidence from
various previous studies which show that sectoral ego
and lack of law enforcement contribute significantly to
the problem of waste imports in Indonesia. It is hoped
that this study will provide useful insights for
policymakers and environmental practitioners in
addressing these challenges more effectively.

3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Political Dynamics and Sectoral Interests
The political landscape surrounding waste import
policy in Indonesia is complex and multifaceted.
Despite Indonesia's commitment to the Basel
Convention, which is designed to control the
transboundary movements of hazardous wastes and
their disposal, the implementation of these regulations
often falls short (Busemeyer, 1993; Chevin, 2010).
This shortfall can be attributed to a variety of factors,
including political and sectoral interests that
overshadow environmental considerations (Ebele,
2017; Yoreo, 2015). Setiawan (2018) highlights that
various government sectors, driven by their interests
and agendas (Lee, 2014; Martínez, 2008), frequently
clash, leading to inconsistent and ineffective
enforcement of waste import regulations (Feeney,
2001; Stokols, 1992). This internal conflict
undermines efforts to protect the environment and
public health.
26

for
policy
effective law

1) Empirical
Analysis

Evidence

and

Comparative

To further understand the political and policy
challenges, it is helpful to look at empirical
evidence from previous studies. For instance, a
study by Pratama (2019) found that several
Indonesian
companies
were
importing
hazardous waste under the guise of recyclable
materials. These companies often bypass proper
inspection processes due to weak regulatory
oversight and possible corruption within
enforcement
agencies.
Additionally,
comparative analysis with other countries like
Malaysia and the Philippines shows a similar
pattern of regulatory evasion and insufficient
enforcement. For example, Malaysia, despite
having stringent laws, faces similar challenges
due to political interference and lack of
coordination among regulatory bodies (Lee,
2020).
2) International
Practices

Perspectives

and

Best

Looking at international best practices can
provide valuable insights for Indonesia.
Countries like Germany and Japan have robust
waste management policies that are strictly
enforced. They employ advanced tracking
systems for waste shipments and impose heavy
Which is the larger … / Rd. Heri Solehudin

penalties for non-compliance. These nations
also encourage public participation and
transparency, which helps in monitoring and
holding violators accountable. Adopting such
measures
could
potentially
enhance
Indonesia's regulatory framework. For
instance, integrating advanced technologies for
tracking and monitoring waste imports could
reduce illegal activities and ensure compliance
with international standards.
3) Recommendations for Policy Improvement
To address these issues, comprehensive policy
reforms are necessary. Strengthening the
coordination between various government
Country
Indonesia
Malaysia
Germany
Japan

sectors, increasing transparency, and enhancing
the capacity of regulatory bodies are critical
steps. Additionally, fostering international
cooperation for better enforcement of the Basel
Convention can help mitigate the adverse
impacts of waste imports. Implementing stricter
penalties for violators and promoting public
awareness about the dangers of hazardous
waste are also essential strategies. By learning
from the experiences of other countries and
adapting best practices to the local context,
Indonesia can improve its waste import policies
and better protect its environment and public
health.

Table 2: Comparative Analysis of Waste Import Policies
Policy
Enforcement Mechanisms
Challenges
Framework
Basel Convention,
Inconsistent
Weak regulatory oversight,
National
enforcement, political
sectoral egos
Regulations
interference
Basel Convention,
Strict laws, but political
Regulatory evasion,
Environmental
interference
lack of coordination
Quality Act
Circular Economy
Advanced tracking systems,
Act,
Waste
High compliance
heavy penalties
Management Act
Waste
Robust monitoring, public
High
compliance,
Management Law,
participation
transparency
Basel Convention

In conclusion, the political and policy landscape
surrounding waste imports in Indonesia is fraught
with complexities (Crabbe, 1999; Salthammer, 2010).
While international agreements like the Basel
Convention provide a framework for regulating
hazardous waste, effective implementation remains a
significant challenge due to internal political dynamics
and sectoral interests (Mato, 2001; Omer, 2008). By
learning from international best practices and
adopting comprehensive policy reforms (Saelens,
2003; Siegel, 1975), Indonesia can strengthen its
regulatory framework, ensuring better protection for
its environment and public health.
3.2 Economic Impact of Imported Waste
In the economic dimension, the importation of waste
into Indonesia presents a dichotomy of short-term
gains and long-term detriments (Mathwick, 2001;
Mitchell, 2008). On one hand, certain industries,
particularly those involved in recycling (Ionescu,
2014; Nursaid et al., 2024), benefit from the influx of
foreign waste materials. These industries can obtain
raw materials at lower costs, potentially boosting their
short-term profitability (Hites, 2004; Slater, 2009).
For example, the recycling sector has seen a surge in
activity due to the availability of imported plastic and
paper waste (Copeland, 2004; Moore, 2008), which
can be processed and sold domestically or
internationally.
REVENUE JOURNAL: MANAGEMENT AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP 2(1): 2 4 - 3 3

However, these economic benefits are not evenly
distributed. According to a study by Rahmawati
(2019), the broader population bears significant
health costs due to exposure to hazardous waste
(Straussman, 2012; Urmson, 2008). The healthcare
expenses and loss of productivity resulting from
diseases linked to waste pollution can far exceed the
economic benefits reaped by the recycling industry
(Larson, 2009; Renzo, 2020). Moreover, the reliance
on imported waste can stifle the growth of a more
sustainable domestic recycling industry. By
depending on foreign waste (Alimi, 2018; Chamas,
2020), local industries may lack the incentive to
innovate and develop more efficient waste
management and recycling technologies that could
benefit the Indonesian economy in the long run.
Empirical evidence from other countries supports
these findings. For instance, a study by Li and Zhang
(2020) showed that in China, the economic benefits
of waste imports were overshadowed by the
environmental and health costs incurred by local
populations (Briffa, 2020; Rothschild, 2018).
Similarly, research in Malaysia by Ahmad and Ismail
(2018) highlighted that while the recycling industry
benefited from waste imports, the broader socioeconomic costs (Bechinger, 2016; Rinninella, 2019),
including environmental degradation and public
health impacts, were substantial.
27

Country
Indonesia
China
Malaysia

Table 3: Economic Impact of Imported Waste (Summary of Empirical Evidence)
Short-term Economic Benefits
Long-term Socio-economic Costs
Source
Boost in recycling sector
High healthcare costs from
Rahmawati
profitability
hazardous waste exposure
(2019)
Environmental degradation and
Li and Zhang
Availability of cheap raw materials
public health expenses
(2020)
Socio-economic costs including
Ahmad and Ismail
Growth in the recycling industry
health impacts
(2018)

These findings underscore the need for a
comprehensive evaluation of waste import policies in
Indonesia. Stricter enforcement of environmental
regulations, along with policies that encourage the
development of the domestic recycling industry, are
crucial steps toward mitigating the adverse economic
impacts of imported waste. Additionally, international
cooperation and adherence to conventions like the
Basel Convention must be strengthened to prevent the
exploitation of developing countries as dumping
grounds for hazardous waste.
3.3 Social Aspects and Community Welfare
The social impact of waste imports in Indonesia is a
critical dimension of this issue. Communities living
near
waste
disposal
sites
often
face
disproportionate health and social burdens. Studies
such as those by Wijaya (2020) reveal that
residents in these areas suffer from a range of
health issues, including respiratory and skin
diseases. These health problems are exacerbated by
a lack of access to healthcare and information about
the potential hazards of waste exposure. Moreover,
these communities are typically low-income, which
Country
Indonesia
Malaysia
India

Table 4: Health Issues in Communities Near Waste Sites
Frequency
Health Issue
Source
(%)
Respiratory
Wijaya
65
Diseases
(2020)
Wijaya
Skin Diseases
45
(2020)
Gastrointestinal
Sutrisno
30
Issues
(2019)
Cardiovascular
Rahayu
20
Problems
(2021)

Empirical evidence from other countries also
supports these findings. For example, a study
conducted in Malaysia by Lim and Lee (2018) found
similar health impacts in communities living near
waste import sites. The study reported high
incidences of respiratory and dermatological
conditions among residents. Additionally, research
in India by Singh and Sharma (2017) highlighted the
socio-economic challenges faced by these
communities, such as reduced property values and
limited economic opportunities due to the stigma
associated with living near waste disposal sites.

Table 5: Comparative Health Data from Different Countries
Respiratory Diseases (%)
Skin Diseases (%)
Source
65
45
Wijaya (2020)
60
40
Lim & Lee (2018)
70
50
Singh & Sharma (2017)

The lack of transparency and community
participation in the decision-making process
regarding waste imports further compounds these
social issues. According to a report by the Indonesian
Center for Environmental Law (ICEL, 2021), many
community members are unaware of the decisions
being made about waste imports that directly affect
their lives. This lack of involvement not only
undermines trust in governmental and regulatory
institutions but also perpetuates the cycle of
environmental injustice.
In conclusion, addressing the social aspects and
welfare of communities affected by waste imports
in Indonesia requires a multi-faceted approach
(Sungkawati et al., 2024). This includes improving
access to healthcare, increasing transparency and
community involvement in decision-making
processes, and enforcing stricter regulations to
ensure that the health and well-being of these
communities are prioritized (Hendarto et al., 2024).
28

limits their ability to advocate for their rights and
protect themselves from the adverse effects of waste
imports.

Further research and policy interventions must focus
on these areas to mitigate the adverse social impacts
of waste imports.
3.4 Environmental Impact of Imported Waste
From an environmental standpoint, imported waste
poses a significant threat to local ecosystems
(Nursaid et al., 2023). This research emphasizes that
much of the imported waste contains hazardous
materials that can contaminate soil, water, and air. A
study by Yusran (2017) found that regions serving as
disposal sites for imported waste experience
significant environmental degradation, including
groundwater quality decline and increased air
pollution (Haanurat et al., 2024). This directly affects
biodiversity and the survival of local species.
The environmental impact of imported waste can be
classified into several categories as shown in Table 1
below:

Which is the larger … / Rd. Heri Solehudin

Table 6. classified into several categories
Category

Impact

Reference

Soil
Contamination
Water Pollution

Presence of heavy metals and toxic
substances in soil.
Leaching of hazardous chemicals into
groundwater and surface water bodies.

Yusran (2017); Smith (2018)

Air
Quality
Degradation

Release of pollutants during waste
processing and incineration.

Tanaka (2018); Kumar (2021)

Biodiversity Loss

Habitat destruction and poisoning of flora
and fauna.

Patel (2017); Green et al.
(2019)

1) Empirical Evidence:
a.

Soil Contamination: According to Smith
(2018), imported electronic waste (e-waste) in
certain regions of Indonesia has led to the
accumulation of heavy metals like lead and
cadmium in the soil, which poses severe health
risks to local communities and leads to loss of
soil fertility.

b. Water Pollution: Lee et al. (2019) conducted a
study in an Indonesian village and found that
the leachate from imported plastic waste
dumpsites had elevated levels of harmful
chemicals, leading to the contamination of local
water sources. This resulted in a higher
incidence of waterborne diseases among the
local population.
c.

Air Quality Degradation: Tanaka (2018)
highlighted that the incineration of imported
waste materials releases dioxins and other
hazardous air pollutants, contributing to
respiratory problems and other health issues in
nearby communities.

d. Biodiversity Loss: Research by Green et al.
(2019) showed that waste dumping sites
negatively impacted local wildlife, with several
species facing habitat loss and exposure to
toxins, reducing their populations and
disrupting the ecological balance.
Country
Indonesia
Germany
Japan
Malaysia

a.

Lee et al. (2019); Rahman
(2020)

These findings underscore the urgent need for
stricter regulations and effective enforcement
mechanisms to mitigate the environmental
repercussions of waste imports in Indonesia. A multifaceted approach involving political commitment,
economic incentives, and community participation is
essential to address this complex issue and safeguard
the environment for future generations.
This detailed discussion and empirical evidence
provide a comprehensive understanding of the
environmental impact of imported waste,
highlighting the necessity for policy reforms and
stringent enforcement to protect Indonesia’s
environment.
3.5 Result and Discussion: Law Enforcement and
Regulations
The effectiveness of law enforcement and
regulations related to waste imports in Indonesia
remains a critical challenge. Despite the
establishment of stringent regulations aimed at
controlling the influx of waste, the implementation of
these rules is often undermined by corruption and
insufficient resources. The study by Nugroho (2018)
highlights that many violations are not pursued with
the necessary rigor, thereby allowing perpetrators to
continue their illegal practices. This section explores
the depth of this issue, drawing on comparative
analyses with other countries and empirical evidence
from previous studies.

Table 6: Comparison of Waste Import Regulations and Enforcement
Regulation Framework
Enforcement Mechanisms
Effectiveness
Basel Convention, National
Weak enforcement due to
Low
Waste Management Regulations
corruption, lack of resources
European Union Waste
Strong regulatory bodies, high
High
Framework Directive
penalties for violations
Waste Management and Public
Rigorous inspections,
High
Cleansing Law
substantial fines
Environmental Quality Act
Increased enforcement efforts,
Moderate
public reporting systems

Indonesia's Struggles with Enforcement:
According to research by Nugroho (2018), there
is a significant gap between the regulations in
place and their enforcement. Many incidents of
illegal waste imports go unpunished due to

REVENUE JOURNAL: MANAGEMENT AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP 2(1): 2 4 - 3 3

systemic issues such as corruption among local
officials and inadequate funding for regulatory
agencies (Sungkawati et al., 2023). For example,
incidents of illegal plastic waste importation are
29

often reported, but follow-up actions are
minimal, leading to a persistent problem.
b. Comparative Analysis: A study by Hartmann et al.
(2019) on Germany's waste management
practices shows that the country’s rigorous
enforcement mechanisms, including frequent
inspections and high penalties for violations,
contribute to its effective control over waste
imports. The presence of a transparent
regulatory framework and accountability
measures ensures compliance and deters illegal
activities.
c.

Lessons from Japan: Japan’s approach, as
detailed in a report by Tanaka (2020), combines
strict regulatory policies with substantial fines
for non-compliance, which has proven effective
in managing waste imports . Regular audits and
a well-funded regulatory body enhance the
enforcement of waste management laws,
demonstrating a successful model that Indonesia
could consider adopting.

3.6 Recommendations for Indonesia
The findings underscore the necessity for Indonesia
to strengthen its enforcement mechanisms to combat
illegal
waste
imports
effectively.
Key
recommendations include:
a.

Enhancing Transparency and Accountability:
Implementing a transparent monitoring system
that allows public reporting of violations can
increase accountability and reduce corruption.

b.

Increasing
Funding
and
Resources:
Allocating more resources to regulatory bodies
will enable more frequent inspections and better
enforcement of laws.

c.

Learning from International Practices:
Adopting best practices from countries like
Germany and Japan, such as rigorous
inspections and substantial penalties, can
improve the effectiveness of Indonesia’s waste
management system.

In conclusion, while Indonesia has established a
regulatory framework to control waste imports, the
real challenge lies in the effective enforcement of
these laws. By addressing corruption, increasing
resources, and learning from international best
practices, Indonesia can mitigate the negative
impacts of waste imports and move towards a more
sustainable waste management system.

4. CONCLUSION
The problem of waste imports in Indonesia has
many aspects and involves complex interactions
between political, economic and environmental
factors. This research reveals that waste imports
30

are driven by political and economic interests, often
at the expense of the environment and human
welfare. This situation is exacerbated by the
ineffective implementation of the Basel Convention
and national regulations designed to mitigate the
negative impacts of imported waste.
The conclusions of this research can be summarized
as follows:
Political-Economic Influences: The study identifies
that the importation of waste into Indonesia is
significantly influenced by political and economic
interests. These interests often prioritize shortterm economic gains over long-term environmental
sustainability and public health. For instance, some
sectors within the political and business
communities may support waste imports due to the
perceived economic benefits, such as creating jobs
or generating revenue from recycling industries.
Ineffective Regulation: Despite the existence of
international agreements like the Basel Convention,
which aims to control the transboundary
movements of hazardous wastes, and national
regulations, their implementation in Indonesia is
found to be lacking. The study suggests that
regulatory frameworks are either not stringent
enough or are poorly enforced, allowing for
continued importation of harmful waste. This
regulatory gap undermines efforts to protect the
environment and public health.
Need for Comprehensive Policy Evaluation and
Enforcement: The research underscores the
necessity for a thorough evaluation of current waste
import policies in Indonesia. It calls for stricter
enforcement of existing laws and regulations to
ensure that they effectively address the issue of
waste imports. This includes holding violators
accountable and ensuring that policies are aligned
with environmental protection and public health
goals.
Empirical evidence supporting these conclusions
can be drawn from previous studies and reports.
For example, a study by Greenpeace in 2019
highlighted that Indonesia received large shipments
of contaminated plastic waste from countries like
the United States, Europe, and Australia, often
under the guise of recyclable materials. Another
report by the Indonesian Centre for Environmental
Law (ICEL) in 2020 pointed out the challenges in
monitoring and enforcing waste import regulations
due to limited resources and corruption.
In summary, the larger issue in Indonesia appears
to be waste imports, driven by complex political and
economic factors and exacerbated by ineffective
regulatory enforcement. Empirical evidence from
previous research supports the need for
Which is the larger … / Rd. Heri Solehudin

comprehensive policy evaluation and stricter
enforcement to address the environmental and
health impacts of waste imports.

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