REVENUE JOURNAL: MANAGEMENT AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
e-ISSN 3026-1058

Vol 1(1), August 2023, 34-43
a s s yf a . c o m

Alternative waste management: composting and biochar
conversion for metal remediation
Eny Dyah Yuniwati1*, Dwi Rizki Novitasari2, And Ali Kamran3
1 Universitas Wisnuwardhana Malang, Indonesia
2Yayasan Assyfa Learning Centre (YALC) Pasuruan, Indonesia
3Medical diagnostic Sonographer, Gunnedah Diagnostic Imaging Alpenglow Pty, Australia

*Corresponding author: nieyuniwati@gmail.com

KEYWORDS
Alternative waste
Biochar
Composting
Metal Remediation

SUBMITTED: 07/10/2023
REVISED: 30/10/2023
ACCEPTED: 17/11/2023

ABSTRACT Palm oil agribusiness drives agricultural economic growth the greatest. Developing palm oil
agriculture can solve financial issues. Despite low productivity, swamp areas can be used to grow oil palm
plants to increase palm oil production. Due to low plant cultivation technology use from sowing to harvest
and soil amelioration, plant productivity needs to be maximised. This study will qualitatively synthesise all
research data to investigate biochar and organic materials as soil fertility and productivity supplements in
swamp terrain. This study summarises primary research using a systematic review. Peer-reviewed PDFformatted scientific literature. Journal articles in Indonesian and English on Instagram's usefulness as a
digital socialisation medium, especially in government institutions, were chosen. The Harzing Publish or
Perish software searched Google, ScienceDirect, and Emerald for relevant papers from the past five years.
This literature review was synthesised using a narrative method to group similar retrieved data by outcomes
measured to meet objectives. According to the results, palm oil biomass waste as compost or biochar is a
realistic way to manage organic waste. Biochar can sink atmospheric carbon as a soil amendment by
converting biomass into aromatic carbon, which degrades less. This article discusses how waste
management increases biological decomposition.
© The Author(s) 2023. This is a Creative Commons License. This work is licensed under a Creative
Commons Attribution-NonCommertial 4.0 International License.

1. INTRODUCTION
Palm oil agribusiness is the subsector that contributes the
most to the agricultural sector's positive economic
development. Hence, establishing a palm oil agribusiness
represents a potential resolution to financial challenges. This
method is regarded as more effective when cultivating oil palm
on swamp land as part of developing an oil palm agribusiness
(Dahliani & Maharani, 2018; Mujtaba, 2020; Setyawan, 2022).
The potential of utilising wetland land for oil palm cultivation is
perceived as a means to increase palm oil production even
though this land's productivity still needs to improve. Swamp
land is defined as an area that experiences year-round
saturation with water, resulting from factors such as
precipitation, river overflows, or the impact of marine tides
(Hariyadi, 2020; Oladele, 2020; Zemp, 2019). The existence of
water is primarily attributable to flat to concave physiographic
forms that impede rapid drainage, resulting in stagnant water
and reductive conditions (Chaivatamaset, 2011; Dahliani &
Elban, 2019; Santika, 2019). Consequently, the atmosphere
transitions from a reductive to an oxidative state, while the soil
becomes acidified in preparation for converting wetlands into
cultivated biomass.
This attempt demands hard work, according to the facts.
This effort has several challenges. Farmers struggle to manage
oil palm plantations because they lack knowledge of cultivation
techniques, plant maintenance, and the ideal number of
production facilities (Chandrasekaran & Bahkali, 2013;
Jekayinfa, 2013; Santika, 2021). Coconut plants need a suitable
atmosphere to thrive and produce. Environmental elements
include sunlight, temperature, rain, humidity, soil, and wind
speed. Climate also affects coconut plant growth (Bentivoglio,
2018; Dahliani et al., 2022; Ibrahim, 2020). Oil palm production

in the marsh area is hindered by unstable ground carrying
capacity, permeability, poor organic matter and alkalinity, and
acidic soil pH of 3.5 to 4.0. Due to hazardous ingredients, iron
and sulfate-reducing bacteria reduce SO42- and Fe (III) oxide in
flooded environments. Iron and sulfate make pyrite (Dahliani &
Saputra, 2018; Liew, 2018; Mahmud, 2019). Oil palm
plantations in swamp terrain have a complicated and dynamic
agroecology. System dynamics result from vegetation, nutrient
cycles, and hydrological interactions (M. Sanyang, 2015; M. et
al., 2016; Sari & Malik, 2023). Due to limited plant cultivation
technology, from sowing to harvest and soil improvement, most
plant productivity needs to be maximised.
Moreover, the above factors suggest that oil palm plant
productivity, especially in marshy environments, depends on
nutritional balance. Fertilisation must include soil nutrient
conditions and plant needs for optimal and sustainable yield.
De Menezes (2000) said the outermost layer should comprise
at least 2% organic matter (C-total) for optimal plant growth.
Biochar can improve marsh soil fertility. Biochar reduces soil
acidity (pH) and optimises inorganic fertiliser use, increasing
agricultural yield. Oil palm plants can be fed agro-industrial
waste compost, reducing their need for chemical fertilisers
(Araya et al., 2021; Nata, 2021; Palmas, 2021). Organic
components improve granulation and aggregate stability by
decreasing clay's fluidity, cohesion, and stickiness through the
humic fraction.
Fertilisation, a combination of coal organic compounds,
can significantly boost the productivity of oil palm plants.
Combining biochar with organic materials can improve the
soil's chemical properties, and its Cation Exchange Capacity
(CEC) can be increased, resulting in a mutually beneficial
34

consequence (Hu, 2020; M. Huang, 2019; Liang, 2021). As a
result, this will reduce the chances of nutrient leakage,
especially for potassium and N-NH4. —Frequent fertiliser
applications heighten the soil's vulnerability to rainfall. Using
palm oil shells as a soil amendment shows excellent potential
for expanding plantations. The utilisation of palm oil shell
biochar as a soil amendment is attributed to its high
macronutrient content and remarkable water retention
capacity (Dissanayake, 2020; B. C. Huang, 2018; Premarathna,
2019). Palm oil waste, such as palm oil shells and dry decanted
sludge (DDS), can be utilised as valuable resources for
producing biochar and organic compounds. Integrating biochar
with organic resources will have a positive and mutually
reinforcing effect on improving soil chemical properties and
increasing oil palm productivity. It will also help capture carbon
in land-use systems as part of sustainable oil palm production.
By synthesising all qualitative research findings
regarding the potential of biochar and organic materials as
ameliorants to increase soil fertility and productivity in
swamplands, this article endeavours to achieve this objective.
The studies above were carried out by (Wang, 2019) and (Hao,
2013). Recent studies have shown that applying biochar to
immobilise metals effectively mitigates soil contamination in
wetland areas. Implementing Rice Husk Biochar in conjunction
with agricultural waste decomposition into preexisting
marshland can potentially increase soil pH, reduce methane
(CH4) emissions, enhance grain productivity by up to 27.6%,
and mitigate the presence of the detrimental element Fe (Budai,
2014; Liu, 2014). As a soil amendment, biochar can function as
an atmospheric carbon reservoir by converting biodegradable
carbon (biomass) into aromatic carbon, a more durable carbon
form (Azhar et al., 2023; Febrinda et al., 2023; Feng, 2020;
Sugiono et al., 2023).
The present study differentiates itself from previous
investigations by utilising a systematic review approach to
combine primary research results between 2018 and 2023.
This research uses biochar and organic materials derived from
oil palm biomass as amendments to improve soil fertility. The
discussions revolve around agriculture's progress and oil palm
biomass production. This is achieved by illustrating Indonesia's
growth in palm oil areas from 2018 to 2023. It is worth noting
that previous studies only focused on the period up to 2020.
Afterwards, the discussion moved on to using palm biomass as
biochar and compost material for improvement and explaining
the early decomposition process. These compounds, such as
chlorophyll found in plants and epidermal tissue found in skin,
undergo fast decomposition. This research aims to examine the
effects of chelated aluminium-based compounds on enhancing
soil fertility in swamplands. More precisely, it investigates the
impact of oxidised pyrite on water acidity, leading to a
significant decrease in pH levels to as low as three or even two.
Consequently, this process may produce iron (Fe) and
aluminium (Al) solubility in the water. Moreover, enhance. The
soil is enriched with iron and aluminium ions due to pyrite
oxidation, acting like a magnet that quickly attracts and binds
any nearby metal it detects. The iron and aluminium ions
existing in the soil will form complexes with the phosphate ions
(PO4) that are already there, causing them to be attracted and
bound together. Plant roots in the ground do not absorb it.
Therefore, this study is of utmost importance and will be
reviewed via the conclusion of previous investigations.

methodically, as previously established. The data used in this
study falls under the secondary data classification since it was
acquired indirectly from prior investigations. This study uses a
systematic review methodology to integrate primary research
findings from 2018 to 2023. The primary objective of this study
is to investigate the efficacy of biochar and organic compounds
obtained from oil palm biomass as soil amendments for
enhancing soil fertility. The research presents a series of steps
in the Systematic Literature Review Media (SLRM), as shown in
Figure 1 (Ahmed et al., 2021).

Identific
ation
and Plan

Review

Evaluati
on and
Docume
ntation

SLRM

Figure 1. depicts the initial step utilised

Figure 1 illustrates the early processes used, which
include identification. Identification involves developing
inquiries on the function of the ameliorant agent. The planning
process is the second phase. The planning process entails
identifying issues about using biochar, organic materials, oil
palm biomass, soil fertility, and soil amendment materials. It
involves the formulation of research objectives and the
subsequent selection of suitable approaches and strategies.
Gather relevant literature about the subject of the review. The
third component pertains to executing a thorough and
systematic evaluation or appraisal. This process involves the
selection of research papers that are relevant to the issue under
discussion. Next, do a qualitative analysis and synthesis. This
evaluation rigorously assesses scientific articles or databases
pertinent to the study topic and then categorises them
according to the research framework. The fifth aspect is
documentation. The fourth aspect pertains to concerns about
documentation. In the third and fourth stages, specific
literature is gathered and elucidated. The acquired findings
serve as the foundation for addressing the indicated issues.
After completing stages one to five, proceed to prepare the
paper.
After devising a procedure, researchers performed an
extensive literature search utilising the Google Scholar, Garuda,
and Willey WOS databases. A qualitative research methodology
was used, explicitly using the review technique (Putra et al.,
2023). This study examines scientific publications in
international and national journals from 2018 to 2023 (Hudha
et al., 2023). Utilising Harzing's Publish or Perish service
enhances the availability of research publications, therefore
enhancing the efficiency of performing literature searches that
will subsequently be transformed into an article.

2. METHOD

3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

The study technique used was a thorough literature
evaluation, as described by (Yuniwati, Darmayanti, et al., 2023).
The ongoing inquiry employs systematic methodologies to
carefully choose, assess, and analyse certain research
discoveries from pre-existing scientific literature. The study
results that have been selected are evaluated and examined,
and judgments are drawn about their importance to the
targeted research goals. Subsequent steps are executed

Swampy soil restrictions are best addressed with organic
soil additions like biochar. Oil palm fruit bunches outnumber
palm shells and other palm oil waste on oil palm plantations.
Landfilling and factory burning of large amounts of oil palm
empty fruit bunch biomass would harm the environment.
Alternative waste management methods like composting and
biochar production boost marsh soil fertility and productivity.
It may also clean up metal-polluted areas.
35

A new research found that biochar immobilises metals in
wetlands, reducing soil pollution. Supplying rice husk Biochar
made from agricultural waste compost may improve soil pH,
decrease Fe levels, reduce methane (CH4) emissions, and
increase grain yield by 28% in the marsh (Hariati et al., 2017;
Yuniwati, 2005; Yuniwati, Prasetya, et al., 2023). Biochar may
store atmospheric carbon by converting biomass into aromatic
carbon when applied as a soil addition. The combination of

earlier research revealed six relevant texts for qualitative
analysis. This study examined how biochar and organic
materials may improve marsh area soil fertility and production
(Fitriana et al., 2020, 2021; Muddarisna et al., 2021;
Muddarisna, Yuniwati, Masruroh, & Oktaviansyah, 2019; Nurul
et al., 2021; Yuniwati, Utomo, et al., 2020). Figure 2 displays the
analysis results.

Potential

Characteristic
s, and
constraints

Additive
Material, and
Effect

Development,
and
Production

Figure 2. Displays the analysis results

Figure 2 displays the outcomes of the conducted
analysis, which provides five conversation components. The
five components of the conversation are as follows:
3.1. Ppotential of “tidal” swamp land in Indonesia for oil
palm cultivation
Oil palm growth is promising in Indonesian tidal
swamps. Marginal Indonesian tidal wetlands provide oil palm
production potential. Maximum agricultural productivity
requires overcoming several challenges, such as poor drainage,
high salinity, and pyrite. Tidal marshes are coastal or riverine
wetlands that are periodically flooded by tides. Variable with
tides. Tidal marshlands were first used for agriculture in the
early 1800s. Due to research projects including P4S, SWAMP I,
II, ISDP, and SUP, agricultural land was expanded. Land clearing
programmes like PLG and PLG Revitalization have also
encouraged agricultural growth in littoral wetland areas. Rising
sea levels might flood irrigation canals that service coastal
agricultural districts in rivers near estuaries. Thus, tidal rice
fields get water even without precipitation. Indonesia has a vast
littoral area.
Estimate that wetland land will cover 20.11 million
hectares, or 33.4 million hectares, in 2023 (Budi et al., 2016;
Muddarisna, Yuniwati, Masruroh, & Aulia, 2019; Yuniwati,
Darmawan, et al., 2020). Swamp areas—lowland swamps and
tidal wetlands—have great potential as agricultural land. The
bulk of Indonesia is swampy. Indonesia has 33.4 million
hectares of wetland, 20.1 million of which are tidal swamps
(Asikin et al., 2012; Faudin et al., 2016; M. S. Koesrini &
Thamrin, 2018). In South Kalimantan, 67% of the 1.14 million
hectares of marshland might be arable (Antarlina, 2007;
Karolinoerita, 2021; Subagyo, 2006).
A specialised study is needed to determine the best tidal
marsh areas for oil palm growth. Tidal marsh terrain is ideal for
oil palm development because it provides consistent water,
reducing drought risk. The flat topography of the tidal marsh
will also make oil palm farming easier. Java's oil palm
agriculture may be improved. Certain soil types are unsuitable
for oil palm growth (Muddarisna et al., 2020; Muddarisna,
Yuniwati, Masruroh, & Aulia, 2019; Yuniwati, Darmawan, et al.,
2020). Oil palm farming is best around 24–28 degrees Celsius

and 1–500 metres above sea level. For optimum growth, 80–
90% relative humidity is desirable. Peatlands have poor
fertility because of their low nutrient content and varied
organic acids, some of which are phytotoxic (Ilham, 2020;
Tjahjono et al., 2020; Yuniwati & Afdah, 2021).
These chemicals significantly affect peat soil's nutrient
retention. Wetlands and floodplains may have weathered soil
from organic matter breakdown. This soil is permeable owing
to its high water content. Topography and land area determine
whether oil palm may be grown on coastal terrain. Stagnation
from blocked drainage is the main issue. A 50–75 cm dry
stratum, preferably 100 cm, is needed for optimum root growth
(Cholily et al., 2022; Muddarisna et al., 2021; Nurul et al., 2021).
A drop in groundwater levels might cause caustic sulphate soils
to oxidise pyrite minerals, especially in the proximal layer.
Pyrite mineral depth measurements are needed to reduce
water levels and assess tidal wetland suitability for oil palm
root growth. Oil Palm Businesses Oil palm agriculture on
littoral land would face land administration issues, agricultural
methods, and infrastructure development investments due to
soil characteristics (Martunis et al., 2023; Pratiwi et al., 2023;
R. Saleh et al., 2021). Thus, developing tidal marsh property
requires adequate technology, notably in land and water
management, careful design, efficient use, and effective
management. These programmes promise to turn tidal
marshes into environmentally viable croplands (Ardianto et al.,
2020; K. Koesrini & Anwar, 2017; Prayudi, 1995).
3.2. Characteristics and constraints of "tidal" swamp land
management
The flat terrain makes tidal marsh areas prone to
flooding. Widjaja-Adhi et al. (1992) categorised tidal swamp
terrain into brackish/saline and freshwater zones based on
water tidal range. To use these two zones, the land aspect (land
typology) must be linked to the water aspect (overflow type),
which has more unique features. The brackish tidal zone has a
land type. Saline has a high Na exchange rate, more than eight
me/100g soil, and is near the seashore. This area is mainly
utilised for rice growing. Rice and coconut are often grown
together in tabukan surjan or tukungan. The brackish/saline
water zone has less land type than the freshwater tidal zone.
36

Typological classification of freshwater zone land by
sulfidic material depth, pyrite oxidation, and peat thickness.
This led to eight land typologies: actual acid sulphate land
(SMA), potential SMP, SMPG, P, GDK, GSD, GDL, and GSDL.

Besides land typology, water overflow type affects agricultural
appropriateness (Dias, 2019; Moerman, 2023; Zakharin, 2021).
Figure 3 divides tidal swamp area into four types by overflow
type.

Type C (Tidal
water impacts)
Type D (Does not
alter the
groundwater
level)

Type B (Strong
tides)

Type A (tidal
overflow)

Tidal Swamp
Area Type

Type A and Type
B (Direct tides are
overflow)

Figure 3. Tidal Swamp Area Type

Figure 3 shows that Type A tidal overflow, the initial
tidal swamp region, may flood with high and low tides. Second,
Type B overflow may only occur during strong tides and cannot
enter rice fields at low tides. The third is Type C overflow, which
is when tidal water impacts groundwater levels less than 50 cm
from the surface but does not flood. Fourth is Type D, where
tidal water does not alter the groundwater level but does affect
it at depths more than 50 cm. Last, direct tides are overflow
kinds A and B, whereas indirect tides are types C and D.
Tidal terrain has shallow groundwater levels and poor
drainage, ranging from blocked to inundated. Tidal land is
usually part of marine and peat physiography. Water is
available year-round, reducing water shortages. Poor drainage
might hinder drainage and cause frequent or chronic floods.
Obstructed drainage conditions decrease root growth owing to
suppressed respiration and soil chemical changes, reducing
plant nutrition availability (Moumtaz, 2019; Verkempinck,
2018; Zhu, 2020). This illness may cause nitrogen and other
nutritional deficits in oil palm trees, causing pale discolouration
and stunted development. Developing oil palm plantations on
tidal marsh terrain requires substantial technical attention and
significant land preparation expenditure (Azizah et al., 2023;
Hizqiyah et al., 2023; Nurdiani et al., 2021). Pyrite content is
another tidal land feature. Pyrite oxidises to sulfuric acid and
iron sulphide, making the soil unsuitable for farming. The
acidity and H+, Al, Fe3+, and Mn concentrations in oxidised
pyrite soil harm plants. This situation usually has poor P and
other macronutrient availability (Andriese and Sukardi, 1990
in Suriadikarta, 2005). Indonesia has 2 million hectares of acid

sulfate soil in Sumatra, Kalimantan, and Papua (Hakim et al.,
1986). Oil palm development in tidal swampland is limited by
the pyrite (sulfidic layer) (Anisah, 2021; Kavitha, 2018;
Kurnianto et al., 2022). Acid sulphate soil has sulfidic particles
and a sulfuric horizon. Acid sulphate soil requires treatment
because pyrite mineral oxidation lowers soil pH, disrupting oil
palm plant development. In an oxidised state, pyrite turns into
iron sulphide, which sharply increases soil acidity, inhibits
plant growth and becomes toxic to plants through several
mechanisms, including damage to plant cells due to increased
H+ ions, increased solubility of toxic Fe, Al, and Mn, decreasing
exchangeable cation concentrations like K, decreasing P
availability, inhibiting root growth and water uptake, and
abnormalities in biotic fact (Nurkanti et al., 2020; Wulandari et
al., 2023; Yustiani et al., 2021).
3.3. Development of agriculture and oil palm biomass
production
Palm oil exports and production have climbed in
Indonesia for 22 years. Indonesia and Malaysia produce 87% of
palm oil, according to USDA (2007) and Yacob (2008) (Hairani
& Raihana, 2017; Mamat & Noor, 2018; Pribadi et al., 2021;
Silva, 2022; SUBAGIO & INDRAYATI, 2015; Umar & Alihamsyah,
2014; Widjaja-Adhi, 1986). Oil palm plants fuel the palm oil
industry. Oil palm plants and crude palm oil output increased
10.55–16.47 per cent annually from 2015–2022. Waste
increased when oil palm farms extended 14.99 million hectares
till 2023. The following data on production growth, domestic
consumption and palm oil exports can be seen in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Source: GAPKI; BPS; data processed by PASPI, 2022

37

According to ESCAP (1997), Malaysia's waste is
54.5% palm oil, 16.77 million tonnes. Forest product waste is
lowest at 2.2% (0.676 million) (Alwi, 2014; Kurnain &
Irfansyah, 2015; Mayasari, 2019; Simatupang & Susanti,
2017). Palm oil waste may be composted or burned to
improve soil and plant nutrition. We call flammable organic
materials in soil and water biomass, primarily plants and
animals. From agriculture and plant processing, biomass
comprises straws, husks, cobs, stems, leaves, and shells. (ArRiza Rumanti, 2014) define biomass as biodegradable organic
matter containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.
Tree age and planting density influence oil palm biomass. Oil
palm trees produce biomass from fruit, leaves, stems, and
roots. Leaf midrib supplies 78% and declines with age,
whereas stem biomass increases from 11% to 56%. Root
biomass averages 16%. Hafiyyan, (2017) found that 1.5-yearold oil palm plants with 148 trees/ha produce 10.4 t/ha of
biomass, rising to 90 t/ha.
The most frequent year-round waste is empty oil
palm bunches and fronds containing cellulose, hemicellulose,
and lignin. Uneven brown empty palm oil bunches weigh 3.5
kg and are 130 mm thick. Depending on fresh palm bunches,
they are 170-300 mm long and 250-350 mm broad (Hidayat,
2000; Noor & Nazemi, 2021; William, 2007). (Mukhlis &
Prayudi, 2001) state that oil palm fronds may be 9 m long, 7
kg, and 15-20 cm wide. Recycling soil organic waste reduces
intensive agriculture environmental risks (Ordonez et al.,
2006). Instead of organic fertiliser, 23% of palm oil waste is
empty bunches. Open oil palm fruit bunch compost improves
plant growth, chemistry, and biology. One of the palm oil
industry's solid wastes, palm oil shells, are biomass from
green leaf grains' photosynthesis, which converts carbon
dioxide and water into carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
Chemistry can create palm kernel shell charcoal from solid
palm oil shell biomass. (M. Saleh, 2019) computed solid waste
of 3.0-3.6 tons/hour and 2.1-2.7 tonnes from a palm oil
manufacturing method that generates 30 tonnes of fresh fruit
bunches per hour. Palm shells hourly. Palm fruit fibre
averages 3.3 tons/hour, and palm oil shells 2.4 tons/hour. The
majority of palm fruit fibre is boiler fuel.
Palm oil shell boiler fuel burns 1.5 tonnes/hour, and
palm fruit fibre 0.9 tonnes/hour. The 24-hour palm oil
manufacturing method yields 21.6 tons/hour of shells for
different applications. Palm oil industry waste might create
valuable, eco-friendly biomass. Composting industrial waste
improves soil structure and nutrients (Boer, 2008; Dewi et al.,
2020; Rahmadani & Rosa, 2021). Composting may decrease
mixture volume by 40–50%, kill pathogens with metabolic
heat in the thermophilic phase, break down vast quantities of
harmful organic pollutants, and produce soil amendment or
fertiliser (Riset & Indonesia, 2023; Septinar & Putri, 2018;
Sobatnu et al., 2016). High-lignin organic compounds are
ideal biochar sources because they decompose slowly. Ash
has more lignin. It binds water and has a weaker cellulose
bond than hemicellulose. Gasification, quick pyrolysis, and
low-resource thermochemical conversion are suitable for
agriculture. Environmental, genetic, and plant culture
practices affect oil palm yield (Amara et al., 2020; Asikin et al.,
2021; Irwandi, 2015). Rain, rainy days, soil, topography,
weeds, pests, and plant populations/ha affect oil palm
production. Genetic variables include oil palm seed variety
and age. Culture includes fertilisation, water conservation,
weeding, pain management, disease prevention, and other
upkeep. Palm oil biomass is a renewable raw resource that
can be produced. Its economic value will rise as fossil fuel
prices rise, and it does not emit CO2 and has low sulphur
(Adistya et al., 2023; Mursyidin, 2018; Wahdah & Langai,
2011).
Biochemical, thermochemical, and physicochemical
methods convert palm oil waste biomass into bioenergy. The

thermochemical process converts palm oil waste biomass
into gas, making it suited for synthesis. Humanity needs
energy. Indonesia, like other rising nations, needs power to
grow. The government must oversee biomass extraction,
usage, and sustainability. They are expanding biomass
utilisation for energy and chemical food processing. Several
methods may generate sustainable energy from agricultural
products and plants. Multiple energy conversion methods
create bioethanol, biodiesel, and biogas. Better biomassbased renewable energy is required (Annisa, 2016; Noor &
Rahman, 2015; Perwira et al., 2023). Energy developerproducer integration requires improvement. Unsafe raw
materials may disrupt forest biomass supply. Small farmers
and communities need competence. Therefore, agriculture
has human resource constraints. We need more educated
individuals. Thus, rural processing skills are required.
Otherwise, small agricultural tools and machinery are
employed. Improve agricultural waste-to-renewable energy
conversion. It must control utilisation to prevent sectoral
biomass overlap. Regulation across sectors, agencies,
ministries, and manufacturers is crucial. Regions, agencies,
and religions use and manage their interests under this
agreement.
3.4. Utilization of palm biomass as amenity materials such
as compost and biochar
Palm shell biochar is chemical-exposed soil. Fertility

Figure 5. Palm biomass production
Source: https://www.bpdp.or.id/biomassa-sawit-sumberenergi-terbarukan

deterioration reduces land productivity. Indonesia has more
crucial land each year. Thus, soil amendments are required to
speed its recovery. Biochar has long been used in agriculture
to improve soil physical and biological qualities and boost
production. Biochar has been shown to benefit soil. Since
biochar leaves no residue on or off agricultural land, it
promotes sustainable and ecologically friendly agriculture.
Biochar is made from hard-to-decompose organic materials
burnt incompletely (pyrolysis) or without oxygen at high
temperatures. After boiling, biological charcoal will create
active carbon with minerals like Ca and Mg and inorganic
carbon. The carbonisation technique and organic material
origin determine biochar's organic component quality. Soil
amendment purpose: Stabilising soil aggregates to avoid
erosion and pollution changes hydrophobic and hydrophilic
characteristics, boosting soil water-holding and cation
exchange capacity (CEC).
Using biochar: Organic material improves soil
qualities when used with mineral soil additions like zeolite.
Some soil additives provide nutrients. The levels are modest,
and plants may not consume all nutrients in soil additions.
Benefits of Biochar: Increases water retention, minimising
runoff and nutrient leaching. Biochar enhances soil structure,
porosity, and aggregate formation. By enhancing soil's
physical qualities, plant roots may access more nutrients and
water, simplifying growth. Biochar is commonly utilised to
improve soil quality, exceptionally marginal soil, due to its
organic and inorganic constituents. Biochar affects soil
microbes. Biochar increases plant-beneficial rhizobacteria
and fungi. Biochar increases enzyme composition and activity
surrounding the roots. Material selection for soil amendment:
38

Cheap, in situ, and renewable soil amendment materials are
still preferred. Environmental impacts must be considered
while using mineral-correcting materials. Additionally,
availability, quality, and pricing must be believed. Synthetic
soil additives are costly and environmentally harmful. Thus,
they should be avoided.
Advantages of Palm Shell Biochar: Palm shell biochar
includes macronutrients and holds water, making it a soil
improver. With excellent water retention, soil moisture is
maintained. Maintaining soil moisture allows bacteria to
grow. High soil microbe populations provide high organic
matter. Biochar from palm kernel shells supports a larger
bacterial population than compost, improving soil structure
and microbial life. Palm oil shell biochar is a viable soil
supplement because Indonesia has enough palm oil shells to
develop agricultural land and achieve food sovereignty.

Figure 6. Utilization of palm biomass as amenity materials
Source: https://dinpertanpangan.demakkab.go.id/?p=3031

3.5. The effect of palm waste-based additives on swamp
land soil fertility
The effect of palm waste-based additives on swamp
land soil fertility is Swamp land is still unsuitable for
plantation crops due to high acidity, low fertility, peat
thickness, sulphidic materials, quartz sand soil under the
peat, and the water management system, which reduces plant
productivity. Pyrite oxidation acidifies swampland soil.
Sulfuric acid from pyrite compound oxidation causes
significant acidification. Under aerobic circumstances, Pyrite,
a FeS2 compound, is stable in marshy ground (acid sulphate
and peat). Pyrite oxidation occurs when channel drainage
exceeds the depth limit of the pyrite layer.
Oxidised pyrite produces Jarosite poison, turning
water puddles rusty or reddish yellow or soil outcrops
yellowish rusty. Water acidity will rise to pH three or even 2
with oxidised pyrite, increasing Fe and Al solubility. Pyrite's
iron changes form and is poisonous to plants when oxidised.
The pyrite oxidation also increases soil acidity by releasing
hydrogen ions (H). Aluminium ions (Al) in acidic soil are
poisonous to plants and are eliminated.
Iron and aluminium ions generated by pyrite
oxidation in the soil act like a magnet, continually searching
for and binding metal. Saturated iron and aluminium ions
attract and secure phosphate ions (PO4) in soil. Plant roots
cannot absorb it underground. Even though plants require
phosphorus (P) to create blossoms and fruit, the earth will be
deficient. Organic resources may lower harmful element
solubility in swamp terrain. Composting empty palm oil
bunches produces organic material. Wholly decomposed
organic material increases soil pH in swamp terrain by
releasing OH- and consuming H+, decreasing H+ ion activity,
and increasing soil Fe2+. Organic material added to the
ground stimulates Fe3+ to Fe2+ reduction, which raises soil
pH and Fe2+ concentration. Additionally, organic material is
essential because marsh land oxidation adds to the burden.
Adverse soil may chelate Fe2+ to lower soil concentration.
Focusing on ground Fe2+ concentrations helps plants flourish
in marsh areas, which may be hazardous to food crops.

Decomposing organic material has a negative charge,
and the carboxyl and phenolic groups provide the negative
control for chelation. Chelation response depends on these
two functional groups. The carboxyl group dissociates at
pH=3, leaving a negative charge. The phenolic group
dissociates at pH=9, creating a significant negative demand.
The pyrite oxidation process releases hydrogen ions (H),
which increase soil acidity. Aluminium ions (Al) in acidic soil
are poisonous to plants and are eliminated.
Iron and aluminium ions generated by pyrite
oxidation in the soil act like a magnet, continually searching
for and binding metal. Saturated iron and aluminium ions
attract and secure phosphate ions (PO4) in soil. In the earth,
roots cannot absorb it. Even though plants require
phosphorus (P) to create blossoms and fruit, the world will be
deficient. Organic resources may lower harmful element
solubility in swamp terrain. Composting empty palm oil
bunches produces organic material. Applying fully
decomposed organic material in swamp land raises soil pH by
releasing OH- and consuming H+, decreasing H+ ion activity,
and increasing Fe2+ concentration. These two functional
groups determine the chelation reaction. Tan (2003) said that
the amount of carboxyl and phenolic groups represents the
overall acidity, the total edge indicates the negative charge of
the humic substance, and humic acid chelates metals better
than fulvic acid.
Biochar increases water retention in soil, improving
its physical qualities. It also increases soil aggregate,
structure, and porosity (Lehmann & Joseph, 2010) and plant
roots' reach to help plants get water and nutrients fast.
Therefore, biochar directly affects plant production. Biochar
quality depends on input components, combustion reaction
circumstances, and procedure. Biochar often raises soil pH, P,
and CEC in swamps. Biochar reduces metal ion activity in soil
solution, which relies on quality, improving soil properties
and plant productivity, particularly in marshy soil (Annisa et
al., 2021). Biochar can adsorb toxic elements in swamp land
by forming a surface complex (inner sphere complex) where
metal elements react with functional groups (- OH, - SH, and COOH) on the biochar (Shan, 2020; Xu, 2018; Yuniwati et al.,
2016).
It contains carbon and holes that elevate pH since it is
ash and works as a liming agent, but it does not contain macro
and micro nutrients required by plants. Yuniwati, (2019) say
the optimal biochar is determined by its adsorption capacity
and CEC, with lower adsorption capacity and greater CEC.
Nutrient-enriched biochar increases soil fertility, particularly
in swamplands, lowering fertiliser use and environmental
effects emissions while improving plant yield. Hawari et al.,
(2021) found that biochar without nutrients like nitrogen (N)
did not boost crop yields.
The atmosphere's CO2 content has risen steadily
because more CO2 gas is entering than leaving. Thus, soil
carbon storage and amendment are essential. The high
carbon concentration of biochar makes it resistant to
oxidisation and stores carbon for an extended period. Biochar
production is a dynamic carbon sequestration process.
Carbon sequestration involves absorbing CO2 gas from the
atmosphere and storing it in the ground for an extended
period to prevent its concentration from rising. In the
environment, biochar absorbs NO3- and NH4+ ions, which are
readily lost owing to leaching carbon sequestration, which
reduces soil greenhouse gas production, heavy metals and
pesticides.

4. CONCLUSION
Indonesia's marginal tidal marsh region provides oil
palm growth potential. Inferior drainage, excessive salinity,
and probable pyrite concentration must be addressed to
maximise plant output. Vegetative observations of 2-year-old
39

oil palm plants in Pitu swamp (80-100 cm pyrite depth)
indicate that water management at 20-40 cm yields a larger
leaf area (2.93 m2) than 0-20 cm (2.40 m2) and 40-60 cm
(2.21 m2) below ground surface. Oil palm productivity in the
1998 planting year in Betung Krawo was greater in locations
with deep than shallow pyrites. Assessing site suitability
classes before creating gardens, excellent water
management, and enhancing soil chemical characteristics
may optimise plant growth and production on tidal swamp
land. Biochar or compost made from palm oil biomass waste
is an efficient way to manage organic waste. Biochar may sink
atmospheric carbon as a soil amendment by converting
biomass into aromatic carbon, which degrades less. Waste
management methods like composting accelerate organic
waste's biological and physiochemical breakdown. By
boosting pH, organic matter content, soil CEC, and toxic
element solubility, biochar and compost as soil additives
might increase swamp area plant production.

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